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List of Byzantine emperors

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For Roman emperors before Constantine I, see List of Roman emperors.

Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans
Imperial
Last to reign
Constantine XI
6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453
Details
First monarchConstantine I
Last monarchConstantine XI
Formation11 May 330
Abolition29 May 1453
ResidenceGreat Palace, Blachernae Palace
AppointerUnspecified, de facto hereditary[1][a]
Pretender(s)None

The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised sovereign authority are included, to the exclusion of junior co-emperors (symbasileis) who never attained the status of sole or senior ruler, as well as of the various usurpers or rebels who claimed the imperial title.

The following list starts with Constantine the Great, the first Christian emperor, who rebuilt the city of Byzantium as an imperial capital, Constantinople, and who was regarded by the later emperors as the model ruler. Modern historians distinguish this later phase of the Roman Empire as Byzantine due to the imperial seat moving from Rome to Byzantium, the Empire's integration of Christianity, and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin.

The Byzantine Empire was the direct legal continuation of the eastern half of the Roman Empire following the division of the Roman Empire in 395. Emperors listed below up to Theodosius I in 395 were sole or joint rulers of the entire Roman Empire. The Western Roman Empire continued until 476. Byzantine emperors considered themselves to be Roman emperors in direct succession from Augustus;[2] the term "Byzantine" became convention in Western historiography in the 19th century. The use of the title "Roman Emperor" by those ruling from Constantinople was not contested until after the papal coronation of the Frankish Charlemagne as Holy Roman emperor (25 December 800).

The title of all Emperors preceding Heraclius was officially "Augustus", although other titles such as Dominus were also used. Their names were preceded by Imperator Caesar and followed by Augustus. Following Heraclius, the title commonly became the Greek Basileus (Gr. Βασιλεύς), which had formerly meant sovereign, though Augustus continued to be used in a reduced capacity. Following the establishment of the rival Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe, the title "Autokrator" (Gr. Αὐτοκράτωρ) was increasingly used. In later centuries, the Emperor could be referred to by Western Christians as the "Emperor of the Greeks". Towards the end of the Empire, the standard imperial formula of the Byzantine ruler was "[Emperor's name] in Christ, Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans" (cf. Ῥωμαῖοι and Rûm).[3]

Dynasties were a common tradition and structure for rulers and government systems in the Medieval period. The principle or formal requirement for hereditary succession was not a part of the Empire's governance;[4] hereditary succession was a custom and tradition, carried on as habit and benefited from some sense of legitimacy, but not as a "rule" or inviolable requirement for office at the time.[1]

Constantinian dynasty (306–363)

[edit]
Main article: Constantinian dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[b]
Constantinian dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
bust Constantine I
"the Great"
Flavius Valerius Constantinus 		25 July 306 – 22 May 337
(30 years, 9 months and 27 days)
West; then whole 		Son of Constantius I, acclaimed by his father's troops as augustus. Accepted as caesar by Galerius, promoted to augustus in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion to caesar in 309 27 February 272/273 – 22 May 337
(aged 64/65)
First Christian emperor and founder of Constantinople. Sole ruler of the Empire after defeating Maxentius in 312 and Licinius in 324. Died of natural causes[9]
statue Constantine II
Flavius Claudius Constantinus 		9 September 337 – April 340
(2 years and 7 months; West) 		Son of Constantine I c. February 316 – April 340
(aged 24)
Ruled the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. Killed in an ambush during a war against his brother, Constans I[10]
bust Constans I
Flavius Julius Constans 		9 September 337 – January 350
(12 years and 4 months; Middle then West) 		Son of Constantine I 322/323 – January/February 350
(aged 27)
Ruled Italy, Illyricum and Africa initially, then the western empire after Constantine II's death. Overthrown and killed by Magnentius[11]
bust Constantius II
Flavius Julius Constantius 		9 September 337 – 3 November 361
(24 years, 1 month and 25 days)
East; then whole 		Son of Constantine I 7 August 317 – 3 November 361
(aged 44)
Ruled the east initially, then the whole empire after the death of Magnentius. Died of a fever shortly after planning to fight a war against Julian[12]
coin Julian "the Apostate"
Flavius Claudius Julianus 		3 November 361 – 26 June 363
(1 year, 7 months and 23 days) 		Cousin and heir of Constantius II, acclaimed by the Gallic army around February 360; entered Constantinople on 11 December 361 331 – 26 June 363
(aged 32)
Last non-Christian emperor. Mortally wounded during a campaign against Persia[13]
 
coin Jovian
Jovianus[c] 		27 June 363 – 17 February 364
(7 months and 21 days) 		Commander of imperial household guard; acclaimed by the army after Julian's death 330/331 – 17 February 364
(aged 33)
Died before reaching the capital, possibly due to inhaling toxic fumes or indigestion. Last emperor to rule the whole Empire during their entire reign[15]

Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)

[edit]
Main article: Valentinianic dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[b]
Valentinianic dynasty
Portrait  Name[d] Reign Succession Life details
coin Valentinian I "the Great"
Valentinianus 		25/26 February 364 – 17 November 375
(11 years, 8 months and 23 days)
Whole; then West 		General; proclaimed emperor by the army after Jovian's death 321 – 17 November 375
(aged 54)
Last emperor to cross the Rhine into Germania. Died of a stroke while yelling at envoys[17]
coin Valens 28 March 364 – 9 August 378
(14 years, 4 months and 12 days; East) 		Brother of Valentinian I, made eastern emperor by his brother (Valentinian retaining the west) c. 328 – 9 August 378
(aged nearly 50)
Killed at the Battle of Adrianople[18]
 
coin Procopius (#) 28 September 365 – 27 May 366
(7 months and 29 days; East) 		Maternal cousin of Julian; revolted against Valens and captured Constantinople, where the people proclaimed him emperor 326 – 27/28 May 366
(aged 40)
Deposed, captured and executed by Valens[19]

Theodosian dynasty (379–457)

[edit]
Main article: Theodosian dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[b]
Theodosian dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
bust Theodosius I
"the Great" 		19 January 379 – 17 January 395
(15 years, 11 months and 29 days)
East; then whole 		Retired general; proclaimed eastern emperor by Gratian. Ruler of the entire empire after Valentinian II's death 11 January 346/347 – 17 January 395
(aged 48/49)
Last emperor to briefly rule over the two halves of the Empire after the Battle of the Frigidus. Died of natural causes[20]
bust Arcadius 17 January 395 – 1 May 408
(13 years, 3 months and 14 days; East) 		Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 16 January 383. Emperor in the east 377 – 1 May 408
(aged 31)
Died of natural causes[21]
bust Theodosius II 1 May 408 – 28 July 450
(42 years, 2 months and 27 days; East) 		Son of Arcadius; co-emperor since 10 January 402. Emperor in the east 10 April 401 – 28 July 450
(aged 49)
Died of a fall from his horse[22]
 
coin Marcian
Marcianus 		25 August 450 – 27 January 457
(6 years, 5 months and 2 days; East) 		Soldier and official, proclaimed emperor after marrying Pulcheria, a daughter of Arcadius. Emperor in the east 391/392 – 27 January 457
(aged 65)
Died after a prolonged period of illness[23]

Leonid dynasty (457–518)

[edit]
Main articles: Leonid dynasty and Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty
Leonid dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
bust Leo I "the Butcher" 7 February 457 – 18 January 474
(16 years, 11 months and 11 days) 		Low-ranking army officer; chosen by the magister militum Aspar to succeed Marcian 400/401 – 18 January 474
(aged 73)
First emperor to be crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Died of dysentery[24]
coin Leo II "the Younger" 18 January – November 474
(10 months) 		Grandson of Leo I and son of Zeno; co-emperor since 17 November 473 467 – November 474
(aged 7)
Youngest emperor at the time of his death. Died of illness[25]
coin Zeno 29 January 474 – 9 January 475
(11 months and 11 days) 		Husband of Ariadne, a daughter of Leo I, and father of Leo II. Crowned senior co-emperor with the approval of the Senate 425 – 9 April 491
(aged 65)
Fled to Isauria in the face of a Revolt led by his mother-in-law Verina & Basiliscus.[26]
coin Basiliscus 9 January 475 – August 476
(1 year and 7 months)
with Marcus (475–476)[e] 		Brother of Verina, the wife of Leo I. Proclaimed emperor by his sister in opposition to Zeno and seized Constantinople Unknown – 476/477
Deposed by Zeno upon his return to Constantinople; imprisoned in a dried-up reservoir and starved to death[29]
coin Zeno
(second reign) 		August 476 – 9 April 491
(14 years and 8 months) 		Retook the throne with the help of general Illus 425 – 9 April 491
(aged 65)
Saw the end of the Western Roman Empire. Died of dysentery or epilepsy[26]
carved portrait Anastasius I "Dicorus" 11 April 491 – 9 July 518
(27 years, 2 months and 28 days) 		Government official; chosen by Ariadne, whom he married, to succeed Zeno 430/431 – 9 July 518
(aged 88)
Oldest emperor at the time of his death. Died of natural causes[30]

Justinian dynasty (518–602)

[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty
Justinian dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
coin Justin I
Justinus 		9/10 July 518 – 1 August 527
(9 years and 23 days) 		Soldier; proclaimed emperor by the troops after the death of Anastasius I 450 – 1 August 527
(aged 77)
Died of natural causes[31]
mosaic Justinian I "the Great"
Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus 		1 April 527 – 14 November 565
(38 years, 7 months and 13 days) 		Nephew and adoptive son of Justin I 482 – 14 November 565
(aged 83)
Temporarily reconquered half of the Western Roman Empire, including Rome. Died of natural causes[32]
coin Justin II
Justinus 		14 November 565 – 5 October 578
(12 years, 10 months and 21 days) 		Son of Vigilantia, sister of Justinian I Unknown – 5 October 578
Lost most of Italy to the Lombards by 570. Suffered an attack of dementia in 574, whereafter the government was run by regents. Died of natural causes[33]
coin Tiberius II Constantine
Tiberius Constantinus 		26 September 578 – 14 August 582
(3 years, 10 months and 19 days) 		Adoptive son of Justin II Mid-6th century – 14 August 582
Died after a sudden illness, supposedly after accidentally eating bad food[34]
coin Maurice
Mauricius Tiberius 		13 August 582 – 27 November 602
(20 years, 3 months and 14 days)
with Theodosius (590–602)[e] 		Husband of Constantina, a daughter of Tiberius II 539 – 27 November 602
(aged 63)
Captured and executed by troops loyal to Phocas[35]
 
statue portrait Phocas
Focas 		23 November 602 – 5 October 610
(7 years, 10 months and 12 days) 		Centurion in the army; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Maurice 547 – 5 October 610
(aged 63)
Deposed and then beheaded on the orders of Heraclius[36]

Heraclian dynasty (610–695)

[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty
Heraclian dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Heraclius
   Ἡράκλειος[f] 		5 October 610 – 11 February 641
(30 years, 4 months and 6 days) 		Son of Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Carthage. Led a revolt against Phocas 574/575 – 11 February 641
(aged 66)
Ended the Persian Wars, but suffered the loss of the Levant to the Muslims. Died of natural causes[39]
coin Heraclius Constantine
(Constantine III)[g]
Heraclius Constantinus
Ἡράκλειος Κωνσταντῖνος 		11 February – 25 May 641
(3 months and 14 days) 		Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 22 January 613 3 May 612 – 25 May 641
(aged 29)
Died of tuberculosis[42]
coin Heraclonas
Heraclius, Ἡράκλειος 		25 May – 5 November (?) 641
(5 months and 11 days)
with Tiberius-David, son of Heraclius (641)[e] 		Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 4 July 638. Co-ruler with Constantine and then sole emperor under the regency of his mother Martina 626 – unknown
Deposed, mutilated and exiled, subsequent fate unknown[43]
coin Constans II "the Bearded"
Constantinus, Κωνσταντῖνος 		September 641 – 15 July 668
(26 years and 10 months) 		Son of Heraclius Constantine; proclaimed co-emperor by Heraclonas at age 11 7 November 630 – 15 July 668
(aged 37)
Lost Egypt in 641. Murdered in Sicily while bathing by supporters of Mezezius[44]
mosaic Constantine IV
Constantinus, Κωνσταντῖνος 		September 668 – 10 July (?) 685
(16 years and 10 months)
with Heraclius and Tiberius, sons of Constans II (659–681)[e] 		Son of Constans II; co-emperor since 13 April 654 Roughly 650 – 10 July (?) 685
(aged about 35)
Defeated the First Arab Siege of Constantinople. Died of dysentery[45]
mosaic Justinian II "Rhinotmetus"
Justinianus, Ἰουστινιανός 		July 685 – 695
(10 years) 		Son of Constantine IV 668/669 – 4 November 711
(aged 42)
Deposed and mutilated (hence his nickname, "Slit-nosed") by Leontius in 695; returned to the throne in 705[46]

Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717)

[edit]
Main article: Twenty Years' Anarchy
Twenty Years' Anarchy
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
coin Leontius
Λέων(τιος) 		695 – 698
(3 years) 		General; deposed Justinian II Unknown – 15 February (?) 706
Lost Africa & Carthage to the Muslims. Deposed by Tiberius III in 698 and later executed by Justinian II in 706[47]
coin Tiberius III
Τιβέριος 		698 – 21 August (?) 705
(7 years) 		General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Leontius Unknown – 15 February (?) 706
Deposed and later executed by Justinian II alongside Leontius[48]
coin Justinian II "Rhinotmetus"
Justinianus, Ἰουστινιανός
(second reign) 		21 August (?) 705 – 4 November 711
(6 years, 2 months and 14 days)
with Tiberius, son of Justinian II (706–711)[e] 		Retook the throne with the aid of the Khazars 668/669 – 4 November 711
(aged 42)
Killed by supporters of Philippicus after fleeing Constantinople[49]
coin Philippicus
Filepicus, Φιλιππικός 		4 November 711 – 3 June 713
(1 year, 6 months and 30 days) 		General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Justinian II Unknown – 20 January 714/715
Deposed and blinded in favor of Anastasius II, later died of natural causes[50]
coin Anastasius II
Artemius Anastasius
Ἀρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος 		4 June 713 – fall 715
(less than 2 years) 		Senior court official, proclaimed emperor after the deposition of Philippicus Unknown – 1 June 719
Abdicated to Theodosius III after a six-month civil war, becoming a monk. Beheaded by Leo III after an attempt to retake the throne[51]
coin Theodosius III
Θεοδόσιος 		Fall 715 – 25 March 717
(less than 2 years) 		Tax-collector, possibly son of Tiberius III; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Anastasius II Unknown lifespan
Deposed by Leo III, whereafter he became a monk. His subsequent fate is unknown.[52]

Isaurian (Syrian) dynasty (717–802)

[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty
  (#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[b]
Isaurian dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
coin Leo III "the Isaurian"
Λέων[h] 		25 March 717 – 18 June 741
(24 years, 2 months and 24 days) 		General; deposed Theodosius III c. 685 – 18 June 741
(aged approx. 56)
Ended Muslim expansion in Anatolia. Died of dropsy[53]
coin Constantine V "Copronymus"
Κωνσταντῖνος 		18 June 741 – 14 September 775
(34 years, 2 months and 27 days) 		Son of Leo III; co-emperor since 31 March 720 718 – 14 September 775
(aged 57)
Last emperor to rule over Rome. Died of a fever[54]
coin Artabasdos (#)
Ἀρτάβασδος 		June 741 – 2 November 743
(2 years and 5 months)
with Nikephoros, son of Artabasdos (741–743) 		Husband of Anna, a daughter of Leo III. Revolted against Constantine V and briefly ruled at Constantinople Unknown lifespan
Deposed and blinded by Constantine V, relegated to a monastery where he died of natural causes[55]
coin Leo IV "the Khazar"
Λέων 		14 September 775 – 8 September 780
(4 years, 11 months and 25 days) 		Son of Constantine V; co-emperor since 6 June 751 25 January 750 – 8 September 780
(aged 30)
Died of a fever[56]
coin Constantine VI
Κωνσταντῖνος 		8 September 780 – 19 August 797
(16 years, 11 months and 11 days) 		Son of Leo IV; co-emperor since 14 April 776 14 January 771 – before 805
(aged less than 34)
Last emperor to be recognized in the West. Deposed, blinded and exiled by Irene[57]
coin Irene
Εἰρήνη 		19 August 797 – 31 October 802
(5 years, 2 months and 12 days) 		Widow of Leo IV and former regent of Constantine VI. Became co-ruler in 792. Dethroned and blinded her son Constantine in 797, becoming the first female ruler of the empire c. 752 – 9 August 803
(aged approx. 51)
Deposed by Nikephoros I and exiled to Lesbos, where she died of natural causes[58]

Nikephorian dynasty (802–813)

[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty
Nikephorian dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Nikephoros I
"the Logothete"
Νικηφόρος 		31 October 802 – 26 July 811
(8 years, 8 months and 26 days) 		Court official; proclaimed emperor in opposition to Irene c. 760 – 26 July 811
(aged approx. 51)
Killed at the Battle of Pliska[59]
coin Staurakios
Σταυράκιος 		28 July – 2 October 811
(2 months and 4 days) 		Son of Nikephoros I; co-emperor since 25 December 803. Proclaimed emperor after the death of his father 790s – 11 January 812
(in his late teens)
Wounded at Pliska; abdicated in favor of Michael I and became a monk[60]
miniature portrait Michael I Rangabe
Μιχαὴλ 		2 October 811 – 11 July 813
(1 year, 9 months and 9 days)
with Theophylact and Staurakios, sons of Michael I (811–813)[e] 		Husband of Prokopia, a daughter of Nikephoros I c. 770 – 11 January 844
(aged approx. 74)
Abdicated in 813 in favor of Leo V after suffering a defeat at the Battle of Versinikia and retired as a monk[61]
 
miniature portrait Leo V "the Armenian"
Λέων 		11 July 813 – 25 December 820
(7 years, 5 months and 14 days)
with Constantine Symbatios (813–820)[e] 		General; proclaimed emperor after the Battle of Versinikia c. 775 – 25 December 820
(aged approx. 45)
Murdered while in church by supporters of Michael II[62]

Amorian dynasty (820–867)

[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty
  (§) – Varying ascribed status[i]
Amorian dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Michael II "the Amorian"
Μιχαὴλ 		25 December 820 – 2 October 829
(8 years, 9 months and 7 days) 		General sentenced to execution by Leo V; proclaimed emperor by Leo V's assassins and crowned by Patriarch Theodotus I on the same day c. 770 – 2 October 829
(aged approx. 59)
Saw the beginning of the Muslim conquest of Sicily. Died of kidney failure[64]
miniature portrait Theophilos
Θεόφιλος 		2 October 829 – 20 January 842
(12 years, 3 months and 18 days)
with Constantine (c. 834–835)[e] 		Son of Michael II; co-emperor since 12 May 821 812/813 – 20 January 842
(aged 30)
Died of dysentery[65]
miniature portrait Theodora (§)
Θεοδώρα 		20 January 842 – 15 March 856
(14 years, 1 month and 24 days)
with Thekla (842–856)[e] 		Widow of Theophilos; ruler in her own right during the minority of their son Michael III c. 815 – c. 867
(aged approx. 52)
Deposed by Michael III in 856, later died of natural causes[66]
miniature portrait Michael III "the Drunkard"
Μιχαὴλ 		20 January 842 – 24 September 867
(25 years, 8 months and 4 days) 		Son of Theophilos; co-emperor since 16 May 840. Ruled under his mother's regency until 15 March 856 19 January 840 – 24 September 867
(aged 27)
The youngest emperor. Murdered by Basil I and his supporters[67]

Macedonian dynasty (867–1056)

[edit]
Main articles: Macedonian dynasty, Lekapenos, and Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty
Macedonian dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Basil I "the Macedonian"
Βασίλειος 		24 September 867 – 29 August 886
(18 years, 11 months and 5 days)
with Constantine (868–879)[e] 		General; proclaimed co-emperor by Michael III on 26 May 866 and became senior emperor after Michael's murder 811, 830 or 836 – 29 August 886
(aged approx. 50, 56 or 75)
Captured Bari in 876 & Taranto in 880. Died after a hunting accident[68]
mosaic Leo VI "the Wise"
Λέων 		29 August 886 – 11 May 912
(25 years, 8 months and 12 days) 		Son of Basil I or illegitimate son of Michael III; crowned co-emperor on 6 January 870 19 September 866 – 11 May 912
(aged 45)
Conquered Southern Italy but lost the remnants of Sicily in 902. Died of an intestinal disease[69]
mosaic Alexander
Αλέξανδρος 		11 May 912 – 6 June 913
(1 year and 26 days) 		Son of Basil I; co-emperor since September or October 879 23 November 870 – 6 June 913
(aged 42)
Died of illness, possibly testicular cancer[70]
carved portrait Constantine VII
Porphyrogenitus
Κωνσταντῖνος 		6 June 913 – 9 November 959
(46 years, 5 months and 3 days) 		Son of Leo VI; co-emperor since 15 May 908. Successively dominated by regents and co-emperors until 27 January 945, when he deposed Romanos I's sons 17/18 May 905 – 9 November 959
(aged 54)
Saw the beginning of renewed expansion in the East against the Arabs. Remembered for his numerous writings. Died of natural causes[71]
 
seal Romanos I Lekapenos
Ῥωμανὸς 		17 December 920 – 20 December 944
(24 years and 3 days)
with Christopher (921–931), Stephen and Constantine Lekapenos (924–945)[e] 		Overthrew Constantine VII's regency, married him to his daughter Helena and was made senior co-emperor. Made several sons co-emperors to curb Constantine VII's authority c. 870 – 15 June 948
(aged approx. 78)
Deposed by his sons Stephen and Constantine. Died of natural causes in exile as a monk[72]
 
carved portrait Romanos II
Ῥωμανὸς 		9 November 959 – 15 March 963
(3 years, 4 months and 6 days) 		Son of Constantine VII and grandson of Romanos I; co-emperor since 6 April 945 938 – 15 March 963
(aged 24/25)
Reconquered Crete in 961. Died of exhaustion on a hunting trip[73]
miniature portrait Nikephoros II Phokas
Νικηφόρος 		16 August 963 – 11 December 969
(6 years, 3 months and 25 days) 		General; proclaimed emperor on 2 July 963 against the unpopular Joseph Bringas (regent for the young sons of Romanos II), entered Constantinople on 16 August 963. Married Theophano, the widow of Romanos II c. 912 – 11 December 969
(aged approx. 57)
Reconquered Cilicia & Antioch. Murdered in a conspiracy involving his former supporters (including John I Tzimiskes) and Theophano[74]
miniature portrait John I Tzimiskes
Ἰωάννης 		11 December 969 – 10 January 976
(6 years and 30 days) 		Nephew of Nikephoros II, took his place as senior co-emperor c. 925 – 10 January 976
(aged approx. 50)
Reconquered Eastern Thrace from the First Bulgarian Empire. Possibly poisoned by Basil Lekapenos[75]
miniature portrait Basil II "the Bulgar-Slayer"
Βασίλειος 		10 January 976 – 15 December 1025
(49 years, 11 months and 5 days) 		Son of Romanos II; co-emperor since 22 April 960, briefly reigned as senior emperor in March–August 963. Succeeded as senior emperor upon the death of John I 958 – 15 December 1025
(aged 67)
The longest-reigning emperor; best known for his reconquest of Bulgaria. Died of natural causes[76]
miniature portrait Constantine VIII
Κωνσταντῖνος 		15 December 1025 – 12 November 1028
(2 years, 10 months and 28 days) 		Son of Romanos II and brother of Basil II; co-emperor since 30 March 962 960 – 12 November 1028
(aged 68)
De jure longest-reigning emperor. Died of natural causes[77]
miniature portrait Romanos III Argyros
Ῥωμανὸς 		12 November 1028 – 11 April 1034
(5 years, 4 months and 30 days) 		Husband of Zoë, a daughter of Constantine VIII c. 968 – 11 April 1034
(aged approx. 66)
Temporarily reconquered Edessa in 1031. Possibly drowned on Zoë's orders[78]
miniature portrait Michael IV "the Paphlagonian"
Μιχαὴλ 		12 April 1034 – 10 December 1041
(7 years, 7 months and 28 days) 		Lover of Zoë, made emperor after their marriage following Romanos III's death c. 1010 – 10 December 1041
(aged approx. 31)
Died of epilepsy[79]
miniature portrait Michael V "Kalaphates"
Μιχαὴλ 		13 December 1041 – 21 April 1042
(4 months and 8 days) 		Nephew and designated heir of Michael IV, proclaimed emperor by Zoë three days after Michael IV's death c. 1015 – unknown
Deposed in a popular uprising after attempting to sideline Zoë, blinded and forced to become a monk[80]
mosaic Zoë Porphyrogenita
Ζωή 		21 April – 11 June 1042
(1 month and 21 days) 		Daughter of Constantine VIII and widow of Romanos III and Michael IV. Ruled in her own right from Michael V's deposition until her marriage to Constantine IX. c. 978 – 1050
(aged approx. 72)
Died of natural causes[81]
Portrait from the Monomachos crown Theodora Porphyrogenita
Θεοδώρα 		21 April – 11 June 1042
(1 month and 21 days) 		Daughter of Constantine VIII and sister of Zoë, proclaimed co-empress during the revolt that deposed Michael V c. 980 – 31 August 1056
(aged approx. 76)
Sidelined after Zoë's marriage to Constantine IX, returned to the throne in 1055[82]
mosaic Constantine IX Monomachos
Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος[j] 		11 June 1042 – 11 January 1055
(12 years and 7 months) 		Husband of Zoë, crowned the day after their marriage c. 1006 – 11 January 1055
(aged approx. 49)
Died of natural causes[84]
Portrait from the Monomachos crown Theodora Porphyrogenita
Θεοδώρα
(second reign) 		11 January 1055 – 31 August 1056
(1 year, 7 months and 20 days) 		Claimed the throne again after Constantine IX's death as the last living member of the Macedonian dynasty c. 980 – 31 August 1056
(aged approx. 76)
Died of natural causes[82]
 
coin Michael VI Bringas "Stratiotikos"
Μιχαήλ[j] 		22 August 1056 – 30 August 1057
(1 year and 8 days) 		Proclaimed emperor by Theodora on her deathbed 980s/990s – c. 1057
(in his sixties)
Deposed in a revolt, retired to a monastery and died soon afterwards[85]
coin Isaac I Komnenos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός 		1 September 1057 – 22 November 1059
(2 years, 2 months and 21 days) 		General, proclaimed emperor on 8 June 1057 in opposition to Michael VI c. 1007 – 31 May/1 June 1060
(aged approx. 53)
Abdicated to Constantine X due to illness and hostile courtiers, became a monk[86]

Doukas dynasty (1059–1078)

[edit]
Main articles: Doukas and Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty
  (§) – Varying ascribed status[i]
Doukas dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Constantine X Doukas
Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας 		23 November 1059 – 23 May 1067
(7 years and 6 months) 		Designated as emperor by Isaac I Komnenos during his abdication c. 1006 – 23 May 1067
(aged approx. 61)
Lost nearly all Italian territories to the Normans. Died of natural causes[87]
miniature portrait Eudokia Makrembolitissa
Εὐδοκία Μακρεμβολίτισσα (§) 		23 May – 31 December 1067
(7 months and 8 days) 		Widow of Constantine X; ruler in her own right on behalf of their sons until her marriage to Romanos IV. Briefly resumed her regency in September 1071 c. 1030 – after 1078
Became a nun in November 1071 and later died of natural causes[88]
coin Romanos IV Diogenes
Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης 		1 January 1068 – 26 August 1071
(3 years, 7 months and 25 days)
with Leo and Nikephoros Diogenes (c. 1070–71)[e][k] 		Husband of Eudokia. Regent and senior co-emperor together with Constantine X's and Eudokia's children c. 1032 – 4 August 1072
(aged approx. 40)
Captured at Manzikert by the Seljuk Turks. After his release blinded on 29 June 1072 by John Doukas, later dying of his wounds[90]
portrait from the Holy Crown of Hungary Michael VII Doukas "Parapinakes"
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας 		1 October 1071 – 24/31 March 1078
(6 years, 5 months and 23/30 days)
with Konstantios (1060–1078), Andronikos (1068–1070s) and Constantine Doukas (1074–78; 1st time)[e] 		Son of Constantine X; made co-emperor in 1060 with Eudokia and Romanos IV. Proclaimed sole emperor after Romanos' defeat at the Battle of Manzikert c. 1050 – c. 1090
(aged approx. 40)
Lost nearly all of Anatolia to the Turks. Forced to become a monk after a popular uprising. Died of natural causes several years later[91]
 
miniature portrait Nikephoros III Botaneiates
Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης 		3 April 1078 – 1 April 1081
(2 years, 11 months and 29 days) 		General; revolted against Michael VII on 2 July or 2 October 1077 and entered Constantinople on 27 March or 3 April. Married Maria of Alania, the former wife of Michael VII 1001/1002 – c. 1081
(aged approx. 80)
Abdicated after Alexios I captured Constantinople, became a monk and died of natural causes, probably later in the same year[92]

Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185)

[edit]
Main articles: Komnenos and Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty
Komnenos dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Alexios I Komnenos
Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός 		1 April 1081 – 15 August 1118
(37 years, 4 months and 14 days)
with Constantine Doukas
(1081–1087; 2nd time)[e] 		Nephew of Isaac I, also husband of Irene Doukaina, a grand-niece of Constantine X. General; revolted against Nikephoros III on 14 February 1081. Seized Constantinople on 1 April; crowned on 4 April c. 1057 – 15 August 1118
(aged approx. 61)
Started the Crusades & the reconquest of Anatolia. Died of natural causes[93]
mosaic John II Komnenos
"the Good"
Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός 		15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143
(24 years, 7 months and 24 days)
with Alexios Komnenos, son of John II
(1119–1142)[e] 		Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since about September 1092 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143
(aged 55)
Reconquered most of Anatolia by the time of his death. Died of injuries sustained in a hunting accident, possibly assassinated (perhaps involving Raymond of Poitiers or supporters of Manuel I)[94]
miniature portrait Manuel I Komnenos
"the Great"
Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός 		8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180
(37 years, 5 months and 16 days) 		Youngest son and allegedly designated heir of John II on his deathbed, crowned in November 1143 after a few months of having to establish his rights 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180
(aged 61)
Last emperor to attempt reconquests in the west. Died of natural causes[95]
miniature portrait Alexios II Komnenos
Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός 		24 September 1180 – c. September 1183
(3 years) 		Son of Manuel I; co-emperor since 1171 14 September 1169 – c. September 1183
(aged 14)
Strangled on the orders of Andronikos I, body thrown in the sea[96]
miniature portrait Andronikos I Komnenos "Misophaes"
Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός 		c. September 1183 – 12 September 1185
(2 years)
with John Komnenos, son of Andronikos I
(1183–1185)[e] 		Son of Isaac Komnenos, a son of Alexios I. Overthrew the regency of Alexios II in April 1182, crowned co-emperor in 1183 and shortly thereafter had Alexios II murdered c. 1118/1120 – 12 September 1185
(aged 64–67)
Overthrown by Isaac II, tortured and mutilated in the imperial palace, then slowly dismembered alive by a mob in the Hippodrome[97]

Angelos dynasty (1185–1204)

[edit]
Main articles: Angelos and Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty
Angelos dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Isaac II Angelos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος 		12 September 1185 – 8 April 1195
(9 years, 6 months and 27 days) 		Great-grandson of Alexios I. Resisted an order of arrest issued by Andronikos I, after which he was proclaimed emperor by the people of Constantinople. Captured and killed Andronikos I c. 1156 – January 1204
(aged 47)
Suffered the loss of Bulgaria. Overthrown and blinded by Alexios III in 1195, reinstalled in 1203[98]
miniature portrait Alexios III Angelos
  Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός[l] 		8 April 1195 – 17/18 July 1203
(8 years, 3 months and 10 days) 		Elder brother of Isaac II, overthrew and blinded his brother c. 1156 – 1211/1212
(aged approx. 58)
Fled after brief resistance against the Fourth Crusade. Died a natural death after being captured and forced to become a monk by Theodore I[100]
miniature portrait Alexios IV Angelos
Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος 		19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204
(6 months and 8 days) 		Son of Isaac II, overthrew Alexios III with the help of the crusaders as part of the Fourth Crusade, then named co-emperor alongside his blinded father c. 1182/1183 – c. 8 February 1204
(aged approx. 21)
Deposed and imprisoned by Alexios V, then strangled in prison[101]
miniature portrait Isaac II Angelos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος
(second reign) 		19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204
(6 months and 8 days) 		Freed from imprisonment during the Fourth Crusade by courtiers and reinstated as ruler after Alexios III abandoned the defense of Constantinople c. 1156 – January 1204
(aged 47)
Became senile or demented and died of natural causes shortly before Alexios V's coup[98]
 
miniature portrait Alexios V Doukas "Mourtzouphlos"
Ἀλέξιος Δούκας 		27/28 January – 12 April 1204
(2 months and 16 days) 		Seized power through a palace coup, son-in-law of Alexios III. c. 1139 – c. late November 1204
(aged approx. 65)
Fled during the sack of Constantinople. Blinded by Alexios III, later captured by crusader Thierry de Loos and thrown from the Column of Theodosius[102]

Laskaris dynasty (1205–1261)

[edit]
Main articles: Laskaris and Empire of Nicaea
Note: Roman rule in Constantinople was interrupted with the capture and sack of the city by the crusaders in 1204, which led to the establishment of the Frankokratia. Though the crusaders created a new line of Latin emperors in the city, modern historians recognize the line of emperors of the Laskaris dynasty, reigning in Nicaea, as the legitimate Roman emperors during the struggle for Constantinople because the Nicene Empire eventually retook the city.[103] For other lines of claimant emperors, see List of Trapezuntine emperors and List of Thessalonian emperors.
Laskaris dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Theodore I Laskaris
Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Λάσκαρις 		c. May 1205 – November 1221
(16 years and 6 months)
with Nicholas Laskaris (1208–1210)[e] 		Husband of Anna Komnene Angelina, a daughter of Alexios III. Organized resistance against the Latin Empire in Nicaea and proclaimed emperor in 1205 after the Battle of Adrianople; crowned by Patriarch Michael IV on 6 April 1208. c. 1174 – November 1221
(aged approx. 47)
Died of natural causes[104]
miniature portrait John III Vatatzes
Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης 		c. December 1221 – 3 November 1254
(32 years and 11 months) 		Husband of Irene Laskarina, a daughter of Theodore I c. 1192 – 3 November 1254
(aged approx. 62)
Started Nicaean expansionism. Died of natural causes[105]
miniature portrait Theodore II Laskaris
Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις 		3 November 1254 – 16 August 1258
(3 years, 9 months and 13 days) 		Son of John III and grandson of Theodore I, co-emperor since about 1235 November 1221 – 16 August 1258
(aged 36)
Died of epilepsy[106]
miniature portrait John IV Laskaris
Ἰωάννης Δούκας Λάσκαρις 		16 August 1258 – 25 December 1261
(3 years, 4 months and 9 days) 		Son and co-emperor of Theodore II 25 December 1250 – c. 1305
(aged approx. 55)
Blinded, deposed and imprisoned by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261, died in captivity several decades later[107]

Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453)

[edit]
Main articles: Palaiologos and Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty
Palaiologos dynasty
Portrait Name Reign Succession Life details
miniature portrait Michael VIII Palaiologos
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος 		1 January 1259 – 11 December 1282
(23 years, 11 months and 10 days) 		Great-grandson of Alexios III; became regent for John IV in 1258 and crowned co-emperor in 1259. Regained Constantinople on 25 July 1261, entered the city on 15 August. Became sole ruler after deposing John IV on 25 December 1224/1225 – 11 December 1282
(aged 57/58)
Died of dysentery[108]
miniature portrait Andronikos II Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος 		11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328
(45 years, 5 months and 13 days) 		Son of Michael VIII; named co-emperor shortly after 1261, crowned on 8 November 1272 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332
(aged 72)
Deposed by his grandson Andronikos III in 1328 and became a monk, dying of natural causes four years later[109]
miniature portrait   Michael IX Palaiologos (§)
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος 		21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320
(26 years, 4 months and 21 days) 		Son and co-ruler of Andronikos II, named co-emperor in 1281, crowned on 21 May 1294 17 April 1277/1278 – 12 October 1320
(aged 42/43)
Allegedly died of grief due to the accidental murder of his second son, probably died of natural causes[110]
miniature portrait Andronikos III Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος 		24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341
(13 years and 22 days) 		Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor between 1308 and 1313. Fought with his grandfather Andronikos II for power from April 1321 onwards. Crowned emperor on 2 February 1325, became sole emperor after deposing Andronikos II 25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341
(aged 44)
Last Emperor to effectively control Greece. Died of sudden illness, possibly malaria[111]

miniature portrait

John V Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος
15 June 1341 – 16 February 1391
(49 years, 8 months and 1 day)
Details
    • 15 June 1341 – 12 August 1376
      (35 years, 1 month and 28 days)
    • 1 July 1379 – 14 April 1390
      (10 years, 9 months and 13 days)
    • 17 September 1390 – 16 February 1391
      (4 months and 30 days)
 		Son of Andronikos III, not formally crowned until 19 November 1341. Dominated by regents until 1354, faced numerous usurpations and civil wars throughout his long reign 18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391
(aged 58)
Reigned almost 50 years, but only held effective power for 33. Lost almost all territories outside Constantinople. Died of natural causes[112]
miniature portrait John VI Kantakouzenos
Ἰωάννης Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος Καντακουζηνός 		8 February 1347 – 10 December 1354
(7 years, 10 months and 2 days)
with Matthew Kantakouzenos (1353–1357)[e] 		Related to the Palaiologoi through his mother. Proclaimed by the army on 26 October 1341, became regent and senior co-emperor after a lengthy civil war with John V's mother, Anna of Savoy. Entered Constantinople on 8 February, crowned on 21 May 1347 c. 1295 – 15 June 1383
(aged approx. 88)
Deposed by John V in another civil war and retired, becoming a monk. Died of natural causes several decades later. Longest lived Roman emperor.[113]
miniature portrait Andronikos IV Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος 		12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379
(2 years, 10 months and 19 days)
May 1381 – June 1385
(4 years, in Selymbria) 		Son of John V and grandson of John VI; named co-emperor and heir in 1352, but imprisoned and partially blinded after a failed rebellion in May 1373. Rebelled again and successfully deposed his father in 1376; not formally crowned until 18 October 1377 11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385
(aged 37)
Deposed by John V in 1379; fled to Galata in exile but was restored as co-emperor and heir in May 1381, ruling over Selymbria and the coast of Marmara. Rebelled again in June 1385 but died shortly thereafter[114]
miniature portrait John VII Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος 		14 April – 17 September 1390
(5 months and 3 days)
late 1403 – 22 September 1408
(5 years, in Thessalonica)
with Andronikos V Palaiologos (1403–1407)[e] 		Son of Andronikos IV, co-emperor since 1377; usurped the throne from John V in 1390. Deposed shortly thereafter but granted Thessalonica by Manuel II in 1403, from where he once more ruled as emperor until his death 1370 – 22 September 1408
(aged 38)
Ruled Constantinople as regent in 1399–1403 during Manuel II's absence. Died of natural causes[115]

miniature portrait

Manuel II Palaiologos
Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος 		16 February 1391 – 21 July 1425
(34 years, 4 months and 5 days) 		Son of John V and grandson of John VI; co-emperor since 25 September 1373 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425
(aged 74)
Suffered a stroke in 1422, whereafter the government was run by his son, John VIII. Died of natural causes[116]

miniature portrait

John VIII Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος 		21 July 1425 – 31 October 1448
(23 years, 4 months and 10 days) 		Son of Manuel II; co-emperor by 1407 and full emperor since 19 January 1421 18 December 1392 – 31 October 1448
(aged 55)
Died of natural causes[117]
miniature portrait Constantine XI Palaiologos
Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος 		6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453
(4 years, 4 months and 23 days) 		Son of Manuel II and favored successor of his brother John VIII. Crowned emperor in Mystras on 6 January 1449, entered Constantinople on 12 March. 8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453
(aged 48)
The last Roman emperor. Died in battle at the fall of Constantinople.[118]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Historian Donald Nicol writes, "Hereditary succession to the throne was a custom or a convenience in Byzantium, not an inviolable... principle. Emperors, particularly in the later period, would take pains to nominate their sons as co-emperors, for the rule of a dynasty made for stability and continuity. But in theory, the road to the throne was a carriere ouverte aux talents [career open to talents]..."[1]
  2. ^ a b c d Unless otherwise noted to be some other ambiguity, the emperors marked to be of ambiguous legitimacy are those who fulfill one or more of the inclusion criteria above, but who are not universally regarded by scholars to count as legitimate. In most cases, such figures are those who held power only briefly, and/or who in times of more than one emperor held one of the capitals but never achieved the full recognition of the other emperor(s).[5][6][7][8]
  3. ^ From the fourth century, emperors and other high-profile men of non-aristocratic birth often bore the name "Flavius", the family name of the Constantinian dynasty. Because it was often used as a status marker rather than personal name,[14] "Flavius" will generally be omitted in the following entries for simplicity.
  4. ^ Distinction between nomen, praenomen and cognomen, the core elements of Roman naming conventions, began to fade away from the 3rd century onwards. Given that "new Romans" —that is, barbarians turned citizens— adopted the names of their masters, many citizens adopted the names Julius, Flavius (notable the Constantinians) and Marcus Aurelius (notable the 3rd century emperors), thus making them obsolete as surnames. As a result, most citizens of the Empire, even emperors, reverted back to single-names by the 5th century.[16]
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Although they constitutionally held the same supreme power as their senior counterpart, it is customary among scholars of the later empire to only regard those who actually ruled as emperors, omitting junior co-emperors who only exercised power nominally and never governed in their own name.[27][28]
  6. ^ From 629 onwards, Heraclius issued administrative documents in Greek.[37] Latin continued to be used in communication with Western Europe until the end of the empire and coins continued to be struck with Latin inscriptions until the early eighth century.[38]
  7. ^ Heraclius Constantine is often enumerated as 'Constantine III',[40] though this name is also often applied to the earlier western emperor and has also been used for Heraclius Constantine's son Constans II (who actually ruled under the name 'Constantine', 'Constans' being a nickname).[41]
  8. ^ Latin ceased being used in coin inscriptions under Leo III.[38]
  9. ^ a b The empresses marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures who were undisputed as legitimate heads of the imperial government and who are sometimes (including by the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium),[63] though not always, seen as having been empresses regnant.
  10. ^ a b Emperors began to officially use family names from Constantine IX Monomachos onwards. The sole exception after Constantine IX's reign is Michael VI, whose family name (Bringas) was far less distinguished than those of the other imperial families and thus does not appear in official use.[83]
  11. ^ Unattested in coinage; Leo is only called emperor in a singular letter, while his brother's status can only be deduced from the fact that he was born in the purple and that he also used the "imperial tokens".[89]
  12. ^ Alexios III used the name Alexios Komnenos Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος) prior to his accession but reigned as Alexios Komnenos, dropping his own family name in order to stress his matrilineal descent from the Komnenos dynasty.[99]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Nicol 1993, p. 72.
  2. ^ Hooker 2007.
  3. ^ Morrisson 2013, p. 72.
  4. ^ Karayannopoulous 2000, p. 183.
  5. ^ Vagi 1999, pp. 415, 463, 529.
  6. ^ Omissi 2018, p. 24.
  7. ^ Seibt 2018, p. 213.
  8. ^ Tilemachos 2015, p. 243.
  9. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 286–288; Barnes, pp. 5–8, 39–42; Grant, pp. 228–231, 234.
  10. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 296; Barnes, pp. 8, 44–45; Grant, p. 241.
  11. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 298; Barnes, pp. 8, 45.
  12. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 300–301; Grant, pp. 242–244.
  13. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 309–310; Grant, pp. 251–253.
  14. ^ Cameron 1988, pp. 26, 28, 33.
  15. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 312; Grant, pp. 255–258; PLRE, Vol. I, p. 461.
  16. ^ Salway 1994.
  17. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 933–934; Grant, pp. 259–262; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 313–314.
  18. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 930–931; Grant, pp. 263–265; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 316–318.
  19. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 742–743; Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 318.
  20. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 904–905; Grant, pp. 270–273; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 323–329; ODB, pp. 2050–2051.
  21. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, p. 99; ODB, pp. 173–174; Grant, pp. 276–281; Croke 1995, p. 58.
  22. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, p. 1100; ODB, pp. 2051–2052; Grant, pp. 288–291.
  23. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 714–715; ODB, pp. 1296–1297; Grant, pp. 305–307.
  24. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 663–664; ODB, pp. 1206–1207; Grant, pp. 312–314; Croke 2004, p. 569–572.
  25. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 664–665; ODB, pp. 1207–1208; Croke 2004, pp. 563–575.
  26. ^ a b PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 1200–1202; ODB, p. 2223; Grant, pp. 327–329; Croke 2004, p. 572.
  27. ^ Foss 2005, p. 101.
  28. ^ ODB, p. 360.
  29. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 212–214; Grant, pp. 330–331.
  30. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 78–80; ODB, pp. 86–87.
  31. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 648–651; ODB, p. 1082; Grierson 1962, p. 45.
  32. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 645–648; ODB, pp. 1083–1084.
  33. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIA, pp. 754–756; ODB, pp. 1082–1083; Grierson 1962, p. 47.
  34. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIB, pp. 1323–1326; ODB, pp. 2083–2084.
  35. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIB, pp. 855–860; ODB, p. 1318.
  36. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIB, pp. 1030–1032; ODB, p. 1666.
  37. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 194.
  38. ^ a b Grierson 1973, p. 177.
  39. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIA, p. 587; ODB, p. 916–917; Treadgold 1997, pp. 306, 308.
  40. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIA, p. 349; Grierson 1973, p. 385; Treadgold 1997, p. 308ff; Kaegi 2003, p. 112ff.
  41. ^ Foss 2005, pp. 93–94.
  42. ^ ODB, pp. 916–917; Grierson 1962, p. 48; Treadgold 1997, p. 309.
  43. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIA, p. 588; ODB, p. 918; Treadgold 1990, pp. 431–33.
  44. ^ ODB, pp. 496–497; Grierson 1968, p. 402.
  45. ^ ODB, pp. 500–501; Grierson 1968, pp. 402, 512.
  46. ^ ODB, pp. 1084–1085; Grierson 1962, pp. 50–51; Grierson 1968, p. 568.
  47. ^ ODB, pp. 1212–1213.
  48. ^ ODB, p. 2084; Grierson 1962, p. 51.
  49. ^ ODB, pp. 1084–1085; Grierson 1962, pp. 50–51.
  50. ^ ODB, p. 1654; Grierson 1962, pp. 51–52.
  51. ^ ODB, p. 87; Grierson 1962, p. 52.
  52. ^ ODB, p. 2052.
  53. ^ ODB, pp. 1208–1209; Treadgold 1997, p. 356.
  54. ^ ODB, p. 501; Treadgold 1997, p. 366; PmbZ, Konstantinos 7 (#3703).
  55. ^ ODB, p. 192; Treadgold 1997, p. 356 (n. 12, p. 939); Garland 2006, p. 10; Schreiner, pp. 85–86.
  56. ^ ODB, p. 1209; PmbZ, Leo 4 (#4243).
  57. ^ ODB, pp. 501–502; Treadgold 1997, pp. 417–424; PmbZ, Konstantinos 8 (#3704).
  58. ^ ODB, pp. 1008–1009; Grierson 1962, p. 55.
  59. ^ ODB, pp. 1476–1477.
  60. ^ ODB, pp. 1945–1946; Grierson 1962, p. 55; Treadgold 1997, p. 429.
  61. ^ ODB, p. 1362; Treadgold 1997, p. 431–433.
  62. ^ ODB, pp. 1209–1210; Treadgold 1997, pp. 431–433, 438.
  63. ^ ODB, pp. 739, 2037.
  64. ^ ODB, p. 1363; Treadgold 1997, pp. 433–436, 438.
  65. ^ ODB, p. 2066.
  66. ^ ODB, pp. 2037–2038; Treadgold 1997, p. 438; Garland 1999, p. 102.
  67. ^ ODB, pp. 1364; Treadgold 1997, pp. 446–455; PmbZ, Michael 11 (#4991).
  68. ^ ODB, p. 260; Treadgold 1997, pp. 461, 490; Grierson 1973, pp. 473–476.
  69. ^ ODB, pp. 1210–1211; Treadgold 1997, p. 458–462, 470, 491.
  70. ^ ODB, pp. 56–57; Treadgold 1997, p. 471; Grierson 1973, p. 473–476.
  71. ^ ODB, pp. 502–503; Treadgold 1997, p. 491.
  72. ^ ODB, p. 1806; Schreiner, p. 121–128.
  73. ^ ODB, pp. 1806–1807; Treadgold 1997, pp. 495–497; PmbZ, Romanos II (#26834).
  74. ^ ODB, pp. 1478–1479.
  75. ^ ODB, p. 1045.
  76. ^ ODB, pp. 261–262; Grierson 1973, pp. 589, 599.
  77. ^ ODB, p. 503; Grierson 1962, p. 58.
  78. ^ ODB, pp. 503, 1807; Grierson 1962, p. 59.
  79. ^ ODB, p. 1365; Treadgold 1997, p. 491.
  80. ^ ODB, pp. 1365–1366; Treadgold 1997, p. 491.
  81. ^ ODB, p. 2228; Treadgold 1997, p. 590.
  82. ^ a b ODB, p. 2038; Treadgold 1997, pp. 491, 590.
  83. ^ Grierson 1973, p. 180.
  84. ^ ODB, p. 504.
  85. ^ ODB, p. 1366; Treadgold 1997, p. 597; Schreiner, pp. 149–150.
  86. ^ ODB, pp. 1011–2; Schreiner, pp. 151–2; Grierson 1973, pp. 759–760.
  87. ^ ODB, pp. 504–505; Schreiner, pp. 151–152; Grierson 1973, p. 764.
  88. ^ ODB, pp. 739–740; Treadgold 1997, p. 608; Grierson 1973, pp. 779–780.
  89. ^ PmbZ, Leon 15005..
  90. ^ ODB, p. 1807; Treadgold 1997, pp. 601–604, 608; Schreiner, p. 156.
  91. ^ ODB, pp. 1366–1367; Schreiner, p. 157–159; Norwich 1993, p. 361.
  92. ^ ODB, p. 1479; Schreiner, p. 158–159; Grierson 1973, p. 798–799, 821; Maynard 2021.
  93. ^ ODB, p. 63; Schreiner, p. 159–164.
  94. ^ ODB, pp. 1046–1047; Treadgold 1997, pp. 628–637; Bucossi & Rodriguez Suarez 2016, p. 16.
  95. ^ ODB, pp. 1289–1290; Treadgold 1997, pp. 636, 638–650.
  96. ^ ODB, pp. 64, 1289; Treadgold 1997, pp. 650–653; Schreiner, p. 176.
  97. ^ ODB, pp. 64, 94, 1012; Treadgold 1997, pp. 653–656; Lascaratos 1999, p. 73.
  98. ^ a b ODB, p. 1012; Treadgold 1997, pp. 654–660; Schreiner, pp. 183–185; Macrides 1999, VI: p. 75, X: p. 514, XII: p. 195.
  99. ^ Cotsonis 2020, pp. 260–261.
  100. ^ ODB, pp. 64–65; Treadgold 1997, pp. 659–664; Schreiner, pp. 183–185.
  101. ^ ODB, pp. 65–66; Schreiner, pp. 183–185.
  102. ^ ODB, p. 66; Treadgold 1997, pp. 265–266, 665; Schreiner, pp. 185–186.
  103. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 734.
  104. ^ ODB, pp. 2039–2040; Angelov 2019, p. 18; Dragon 2003, p. 275.
  105. ^ ODB, pp. 1047–1048; Angelov 2019, p. 256.
  106. ^ ODB, pp. 2040–2041; Treadgold 1997, p. 731; Angelov 2019, p. 61, 258, 325.
  107. ^ ODB, pp. 1048–1049; Macrides 2013, p. 303; Angelov 2019, p. 305; PLP, p. 2663 (#14534).
  108. ^ ODB, p. 1367; Treadgold 1997, p. 745; Schreiner, pp. 196–206; PLP, p. 3929 (#21528).
  109. ^ ODB, pp. 94–95; Angelov 2009, p. 100; PLP, p. 3889 (#21436).
  110. ^ ODB, pp. 1367–8; Treadgold 1997, p. 755; Angelov 2009, p. 100; PLP, p. 3931 (#21529).
  111. ^ ODB, p. 95; Treadgold 1997, p. 764; Lascaratos & Marketos 1997, pp. 106–9; PLP, p. 3891 (#21437).
  112. ^ ODB, p. 1050; Schreiner, pp. 253, 345; PLP, p. 3912 (#21485).
  113. ^ ODB, pp. 1050–1051; Schreiner, pp. 252–288; PLP, p. 2046 (#10973); Feiller 1976.
  114. ^ ODB, p. 95; Mladenov 2003, p. 190; Schreiner, pp. 312–321; PLP, p. 3893 (#21438).
  115. ^ ODB, p. 1052; Oikonomides 1977, p. 331; Schreiner, pp. 340–343; PLP, p. 3908 (#21480).
  116. ^ ODB, p. 1291; Schreiner, pp. 276, 309, 429; PLP, p. 3923 (#21513).
  117. ^ ODB, pp. 1053–1054; Schreiner, pp. 340, 387–411; PLP, p. 3909 (#21481).
  118. ^ ODB, p. 505; Nicol 1992, pp. 2, 35–38, 70; PLP, p. 3919 (#21500).

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